The discourse surrounding national identity often navigates a complex terrain, shaped by two fundamental, usually contrasting, theoretical perspectives: primordialism and civic nationalism. Understanding these concepts is essential for analyzing shifts in a nation's self-conception and its approach to citizenship.
Defining Primordialism
Primordialism is a theoretical lens emphasizing the profound, often instinctual, emotional bonds individuals cultivate towards their ethnic, cultural, and national identities. These attachments are perceived as deeply rooted in shared, inherent characteristics, such as race, religion, language, common history, or even a sense of shared "blood and common fate." Edward Shils first introduced the term in 1957 to describe family bonds, a concept later expanded by Clifford Geertz, who viewed these attachments as stemming from the "givens" of social existence, such as being born into a particular community or acquiring its language.
This theoretical framework distinguishes between "hard" and "soft" forms of knowledge. Hard primordialism describes concrete, established, immemorial, and instinctual ties, exemplified by pride in ancestral heritage or patriotic feelings towards one's country of origin. Soft primordialism, conversely, is subjective, learned, and contextual, allowing for a strong sense of attachment to develop towards a new homeland, even if one was born elsewhere. Despite this nuance, primordialism generally posits that national identities are fixed, natural, and ancient, not easily altered by modern influences.
A notable observation regarding primordial attachment and assimilation is the subtle yet significant way "soft" primordialism complicates a purely exclusionary interpretation. While "hard" primordialism often aligns with rigid, exclusionary views of national identity, the concept of "soft" primordialism suggests a pathway for assimilation rooted in emotional bonding rather than merely rational adherence to principles. This implies that even learned attachments can acquire a "primordial" quality, challenging the notion that deep ties are exclusively innate. This distinction is frequently overlooked in political rhetoric that seeks to leverage primordial sentiments for exclusionary purposes.
Defining Civic Nationalism
In stark contrast to primordialism, civic nationalism, also known as democratic nationalism, posits that national identity is founded upon adherence to shared political values, institutions, and liberal principles such as freedom, tolerance, equality, and individual rights. This perspective explicitly rejects ethnocentrism as a basis for national belonging. Membership in a civic nation is open to any individual through citizenship, irrespective of their cultural or ethnic background, provided they pledge to uphold the country's constitution and laws. This form of nationalism emphasizes loyalty to political institutions and a shared commitment to common civic ideals, thereby fostering unity within diverse populations. It is frequently contrasted with ethnic nationalism, which often leads to exclusionary practices.
Fundamental Divergence
The core difference between these two concepts lies in the basis of belonging: primordialism emphasizes inherent, often unchosen, ethno-cultural ties, while civic nationalism prioritizes voluntary commitment to a shared political framework and its foundational values. The former frequently leads to fixed, exclusive identities, whereas the latter strives for inclusivity and adaptability.
A critical observation is the inherent vulnerability of primordialism to exclusionary practices. Academic scholarship widely rejects primordialism, noting its potential to lead to radical conclusions and to foster exclusionary practices by framing national identity as monolithic and immutable. When national identity is perceived as fixed, natural, and ancient, based on perceived "blood" or "shared historical milestones," individuals who do not share these inherent traits are inherently "othered" and excluded from the perceived "national family". This theoretical critique directly foreshadows the real-world implications of political rhetoric and policies that lean into primordialist definitions, suggesting that such a conceptual turn is not merely a shift in academic discourse but a move towards a framework with documented negative societal consequences, particularly for minority groups and immigrants.
To further delineate these distinct approaches to national identity, a comparative framework is presented below.
| Feature | Primordialism | Civic Nationalism |
|---|---|---|
| Basis of Identity | Shared ethnicity, race, religion, language, history, "blood and common fate" | Shared political values, institutions, constitution, rule of law |
| Nature of Identity | Fixed, natural, ancient, inborn, instinctive | Voluntary, acquired through citizenship, commitment to principles |
| Inclusivity | Tends to be exclusive, based on inherent traits | Tends to be inclusive, open to all citizens regardless of background |
| Integration | Ethnic domination, cultural monism (with varying inclusivity) | Assimilation into shared civic principles, multiculturalism (within civic bounds) |
| Key Thinkers | Edward Shils, Clifford Geertz, Herder, Fichte | Ernest Renan, Jürgen Habermas |
| Potential Pitfalls | Exclusionary practices, mystification of national emotions, radical conclusions | Risk of underlying ethnic concept, potential for intolerance (historical examples) |
America's Foundational Paradox: Civic Ideals and Ethno-Cultural Realities in Traditional Conservatism
The historical understanding of US citizenship reveals a persistent tension: while the nation was founded on civic nationalist ideals, these principles have always coexisted with, and at times been shaped by, underlying ethnocultural assumptions.
The Civic Nationalist Foundation of the American Republic
The United States was established on liberal and republican ideals, eloquently articulated in foundational documents such as the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. Core phrases like "all men are created equal" and "We the People" encapsulate a commitment to universal principles, individual rights, and self-governance, thereby forming the bedrock of a civic nation. This civic nationalist ethos profoundly influenced the development of representative democracy in the United States. Traditional American conservatism, deeply rooted in republicanism, historically regarded individual liberty, within the bounds of conservative values, as a fundamental characteristic of democracy. It also emphasized a strong identification with the Founding Fathers and the Constitution as guiding principles. The enduring "melting pot" ideal, which envisions diverse immigrants integrating into a shared national culture, further reflects this civic nationalist approach to diversity.
The Implicit Ethno-Cultural Underpinnings
Despite its espoused civic ideals, the American national identity was, from its inception, implicitly and often explicitly constructed on a "white ethnic base". The Naturalization Act of 1790, for instance, starkly limited citizenship to "free white persons of good character," denying it to enslaved Black people and anyone of non-European descent. This early legislation established a racialized component to citizenship that stood in direct contradiction to the nation's universalist civic principles. For much of its existence, the United States operated as an "ethnic nation," characterized by non-conformist Protestantism and Anglo-Saxon genealogy, often employing "Anglo-conformity" as a mechanism to assimilate newcomers. Subsequent immigration laws, particularly those enacted in 1917, 1921, and 1924, continued to favor European immigrants, mainly from northern and western Europe, while imposing significant restrictions on others.
A significant observation here is the pragmatic nature of traditional conservative civic nationalism. The historical record demonstrates that traditional conservatism's embrace of civic nationalism was not always a pure, unadulterated commitment to universal abstract principles. Instead, its application was often pragmatic, with civic ideals overlaid by, or constrained by, ethno-racial preferences. The initial naturalization laws and later restrictive immigration policies clearly illustrate that while the rhetoric was civic, the practice frequently served to maintain a specific ethnocultural demographic. This suggests that traditional conservatism, while articulating civic principles, harbored a latent primordialist strain, particularly concerning who was considered a "true" American. The historical construction of the "civic ideal on a white ethnic base" is a critical piece of evidence, indicating that the civic framework was often a means to an ethnocultural end, rather than an end in itself.
Traditional Conservative Views on Immigration and Assimilation
Historically, conservatives voiced concerns about immigrants' potential strain on resources, their capacity to assimilate, and the risk of subversion, particularly when newcomers differed significantly in religion, language, or ethnic background from the prevailing "white Anglo-Saxon Protestant American norm". Following World War II, American conservatism, influenced by figures such as William F. Buckley Jr. and Russell Kirk, coalesced around anti-communism, free markets, and traditional values, while also grappling with the complexities of national identity. Kirk, for example, underscored the enduring importance of Western civilization and tradition, regarding the Constitution as a conservative instrument for ordered liberty. Cultural conservatives generally advocated for monoculturalism and assimilation into an English-speaking American culture, often opposing multiculturalism.
The Heritage Foundation, a prominent conservative think tank, champions "patriotic assimilation," a policy that welcomes immigrants but expects them to learn and embrace American civic culture and political institutions, thereby forming "one nation from many peoples." This perspective highlights a desire for uniformity of opinion regarding America's fundamental principles, even as it acknowledges the inevitability of diversity.
A notable observation is the shifting nature of exclusionary rhetoric within conservatism. The historical opposition to civil rights by many conservatives, initially rooted in explicit claims of white racial supremacy, later evolved into arguments based on seemingly "race-neutral principles" such as states' rights and limited federal intervention. This strategic rhetorical adaptation allowed underlying ethnocultural preferences to persist, even as overt racism became less socially acceptable. This indicates that the
The Form of exclusionary arguments changed, but their function of maintaining a particular vision of national identity often remained consistent. This historical precedent is crucial for understanding how, later, more explicit primordialist rhetoric could find resonance within the conservative base, as it tapped into a lineage of anxieties about national identity and demographic change that were previously articulated through different, more coded means.
The Trumpian Turn: Reimagining Citizenship Through Primordial Lenses
Donald Trump's presidency marked a significant ideological departure, particularly in its approach to American citizenship and national identity, shifting the discourse away from the traditional, albeit imperfect, civic nationalist framework towards a more overt primordialist stance.
Rhetoric of Exclusion and In-Group Preference
Trump's "America First" agenda signaled a clear prioritization of national interests and a reassertion of American sovereignty, often framed in a manner that departed from traditional international commitments and canonical principles in favor of a specific national identity. His public statements frequently invoked a sense of a "national family" and described US citizenship as a "sacred honor" to be "fiercely guarded". This rhetoric, however, was often coupled with explicit disparagement of racial, religious, and ethnic minorities and immigrants. The widely reported "shithole countries" comment, for instance, revealed a deep-seated, racially charged assessment of particular nations and their populations, implying an inherent inferiority based on origin. Migrants were frequently portrayed as "invading marauders" or criminals, dehumanizing them and reinforcing an "us versus them" narrative.
A salient observation is the explicit primordialization of the "national family" during this period. The concurrent use of "national family" rhetoric and derogatory language towards specific national or ethnic groups is not contradictory; rather, it is a clear manifestation of primordialism's inherent in-group/out-group dynamic. If the nation is conceptualized as a "family," then those outside that perceived familial, often ethno-culturally defined, circle are inherently "other" and thus subject to exclusion or disdain. This goes beyond mere policy preference; it represents an attempt to redefine the emotional and inherent boundaries of national belonging, making explicit the implicit ethno-cultural biases that have historically coexisted with civic ideals. This "primordialization" of the national family directly aligns with the "hard" primordialist view of concrete, instinctual ties.
Policy Actions Reflecting Primordialist Leanings
The Trump administration implemented numerous administrative changes to the immigration system, often driven by executive action. Key policy initiatives and proposals reflected a clear shift towards primordialist leanings:
- Mass Deportations and Border Enforcement: A significant focus was placed on increasing immigration arrests and deportations, with calls for "the single largest Mass Deportation Program in History". This was coupled with extensive funding for border wall construction and the expansion of detention facilities, aiming for a rapid, "Amazon-like" deportation system.
- Challenges to Birthright Citizenship: Donald Trump explicitly sought to end birthright citizenship for children born in the United States to parents who were undocumented or held temporary legal status, proposing an executive order to this effect. This directly challenged the Fourteenth Amendment's Citizenship Clause, which has long been interpreted as granting birthright citizenship regardless of parental status. This move represents a fundamental shift from jus soli (citizenship by soil) towards an implied jus sanguinis (citizenship by blood or descent) or a highly restricted jus soli based on parental allegiance.
- Travel Bans and Increased Vetting: The administration implemented travel bans targeting nationals from numerous countries, many of which were Muslim-majority. These bans, justified on national security grounds, were widely criticized as discriminatory and based on nationality rather than individual assessment. There were also proposals for increased vetting and a "denaturalization" process for certain naturalized citizens.
- Family Separation Policy: The "zero tolerance" policy at the US-Mexico border led to the controversial separation of migrant children from their parents. This practice drew widespread condemnation for its humanitarian implications.
A profound implication of these policies is the attempted legal redefinition of belonging. The challenge to birthright citizenship stands as the most significant policy manifestation of a primordialist turn. The 14th Amendment's Citizenship Clause is a cornerstone of American civic nationalism, establishing that birth on US soil generally confers citizenship, irrespective of parental origin. The efforts to alter this through executive action or reinterpretation signify an attempt to redefine citizenship from a legal status based on territory (
jus soli) to one predicated on the "allegiance" or "status" of parents, implicitly moving towards a system based on "blood" or inherited characteristics (jus sanguinis). This constitutes a direct legal assault on the civic nationalist principle and a clear push towards a more primordial understanding of who is "truly" American.
A Divergence from the Past: Trumpism's Break with Mainstream Conservative Thought
Donald Trump's approach to citizenship and national identity represents a significant, though not entirely unprecedented, divergence from the mainstream of traditional American conservatism, particularly as it evolved in the post-Civil Rights era.
Shift from Fusionist Conservatism
For decades preceding Trump's rise, the dominant "fusionist conservatism" within the Republican Party, exemplified by figures such as Ronald Reagan and intellectual architects like William F. Buckley Jr., generally emphasized global responsibilities, defined America as a set of ideals, and supported free-market economics. While early movement conservatism, including Buckley's National Review, grappled with racial issues and initially denounced desegregation, it later shifted towards supporting "color-blind racial policies" and purged overtly antisemitic or white supremacist elements. This trajectory suggested a movement towards a more inclusive, albeit still assimilationist, civic nationalism.
Trumpism's Rejection of "Canonical Principles" and "Ideas of the Founders"
Trumpism, in contrast, champions "America First" and often "eschews canonical principles in favor of national identity," prioritizing "people" over "the ideas of the Founders" as the country's essence. This marks a notable departure from traditional conservative reverence for the Constitution as a guiding doctrine and the Declaration of Independence as an ideological foundation. While traditional conservatives like Russell Kirk emphasized continuity with Western tradition and viewed the Constitution as a "conservative power for ordered liberty", Trump's rhetoric and actions suggest a willingness to challenge established constitutional interpretations, particularly regarding birthright citizenship.
A key observation here is the populist reframing of American identity. Traditional conservatism, while often culturally conservative, typically grounded its vision of American identity in foundational documents and abstract principles such as liberty, limited government, and republicanism. Trumpism, however, shifts this foundation from the abstract "ideas of the Founders" to "people" as the country's essence, and prioritizes "tangible results" like job creation over "principled objections to government intervention." This constitutes a populist reframing, where national identity becomes less about adherence to a shared creed and more about the perceived interests and grievances of a particular, often ethno-culturally defined, segment of the population. This allows for a more direct appeal to primordial sentiments, as the "nation" is defined by its current inhabitants, or a subset thereof, rather than its enduring ideals.
Embracing Explicit Nativism and Ethnic Nationalism
Trump's political movement, often termed Trumpism, explicitly incorporates ideologies such as right-wing populism, nativism, and neo-nationalism. His campaign and administration were characterized by "virulent anti-immigrant demagoguery and lies", and he explicitly and routinely disparaged racial, religious, and ethnic minorities. Scholars note that Trump "largely drew upon the ethnic nationalist tradition to defend a conception of American national identity that is grounded in white American myths and symbols," presenting an "exclusionary vision" that privileges white Americans. This represents a stark contrast to the post-Civil Rights era conservative movement's strategic shift away from overt racial supremacy towards seemingly "race-neutral principles". While traditional conservatism had its own historical ethnic biases, Trump made these biases explicit and central to his political platform, moving beyond the "dog whistle politics" of previous decades to "explicit White nativism and xenophobia".
This phenomenon can be understood as the unveiling of latent ethno-nationalism. While Trump's rhetoric and policies might appear as a radical break, the available information suggests they are also "the outer edge of decades-long trends" or reflect a "broader value shift". This implies that Trumpism did not create ethno-nationalist sentiments within American conservatism but rather unveiled and amplified pre-existing, often latent, primordialist tendencies that had been suppressed or expressed through coded language in the post-Civil Rights era. His success demonstrates that a significant segment of the conservative base was receptive to a more explicit, identity-based definition of American citizenship, indicating a deeper, unresolved tension within the American civic nationalist narrative. This shift from implicit to explicit nativism fundamentally alters the mainstream conservative discourse on national identity.
Concluding Reflections: The Reshaping of American Identity
Donald Trump's turn towards primordialism in defining US citizenship represents a profound challenge to the nation's long-standing, albeit complex, civic nationalist tradition. By emphasizing shared ancestry, perceived cultural homogeneity, and a narrow, exclusionary vision of the "national family," his approach directly undermines the principles of voluntary adherence to constitutional values and open membership that have historically defined American citizenship.
The Primordial Challenge to Civic Foundations
The conceptual shift towards primordialism under the Trump administration directly confronts the civic foundations of American identity. The focus on inherent, often unchosen, characteristics like ethnicity and national origin as prerequisites for complete belonging stands in direct opposition to the liberal ideals of individual rights and voluntary commitment to a shared political creed. This redefinition attempts to solidify an in-group identity by explicitly "othering" those who do not fit a particular ethno-cultural mold, moving away from the aspirational inclusivity of civic nationalism.
Implications for Social Cohesion and Democracy
This conceptual shift carries profound implications for American social cohesion. The explicit "othering" of immigrant groups and minorities, coupled with attempts to redefine citizenship based on parental status or national origin, risks creating a permanent "subclass" of residents and exacerbating societal divisions. Such a move aligns with the exclusionary practices warned against by scholars of primordialism and could undermine the democratic ideal of equal citizenship. The rhetoric of "invasion" and the dehumanization of migrants contribute to a climate of fear and animosity, potentially leading to increased discrimination and social fragmentation.
A Contested Future for American Identity
The debate over US citizenship under Trump highlights a persistent tension within American identity itself: the struggle between its aspirational civic ideals and its historical ethno-cultural realities. The historical analysis reveals that the tension between civic and ethnic nationalism has always been a "major fault line in American nationalism", with the "civic ideal constructed on a white ethnic base". Trump's actions, therefore, are not an entirely new phenomenon but rather an intensification and explicit articulation of a long-standing, often suppressed, ethnocultural dimension of American identity. This suggests that the "Trumpian turn" is less a radical invention and more a reactivation of dormant or sublimated primordialist tendencies within the American political psyche. The "nationalist polarization" observed in recent elections is a symptom of this enduring, unresolved tension, indicating that the debate over American identity is cyclical and deeply embedded in the nation's historical fabric.
Further complicating this landscape is the complex interplay of identity and political support. The finding that naturalized immigrants, particularly Hispanic ones, showed increased support for Trump in 2024, despite his anti-immigrant rhetoric, presents a significant observation. This suggests that identity-based appeals do not operate in a vacuum and can be overridden or complemented by other factors, such as economic concerns or a desire for perceived "order" and "security". It also raises the possibility that some immigrant groups, once integrated, may adopt restrictive views towards new arrivals, aligning with a "pull up the ladder" mentality that prioritizes their own established status. This complexity challenges simplistic assumptions about how identity politics functions and underscores the multifaceted nature of political alignment. The future trajectory of American national identity will depend on how this fundamental contestation between primordial and civic understandings of belonging is resolved, as well as how the nation navigates the evolving dynamics of its diverse population.
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